"Effective teaching is not a set of generic practices, but instead is a set of context-driven decisions about teaching. Effective teachers do not use the same set of practices for every lesson . . . Instead, what effective teachers do is constantly reflect about their work, observe whether students are learning or not, and, then adjust their practice accordingly (Glickman, 1991, p. 6).
Models represent the broadest level of instructional practices and present a philosophical orientation to instruction. Models are used to select and to structure teaching strategies, methods, skills, and student activities for a particular instructional emphasis. Instructional models are related to theories about how we learn. Some examples include: behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and connectivism. Various learning theories fit within these general categories, i.e., adult learning theory, transformative learning, social interaction, motivation theory, etc.
Within each model several strategies can be used. Strategies determine the approach a teacher may take to achieve learning objectives. Strategies can be classed as direct, indirect, interactive, experiential, or independent.
Methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While particular methods are often associated with certain strategies, some methods may be found within a variety of strategies.
Capable instructors are aware of the principle of active learner participation. "Given the choice between two techniques, choose the one involving the learners in the most active participation" (Knowles, 1980, p. 240). Below is a sample of techniques categorized according to participant involvement (Cafarrella, 2002)
Levels of Learner Involvement |
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Low Involvement |
Medium Involvement |
High Involvement |
Lecture Panel discussion Demonstration Computer-based drills Computer-based tutorials Socratic dialogue Tutorials |
Group discussion Behavior modeling Observation Reflective practice--blogs, journals Asynchronous online forums E-mail and listservs Audio/Video conferencing 3D Interactive Learning Activities
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Role play Debates Case studies Simulations WebQuests Internet searches Concept mapping Trial and error Storytelling Jigsaw Educational gaming Second LifeāSims Real-time relay chats In-basket exercises Structured experiences Problem-based learning Project-Based Learning Collaborative Learning Inquiry Learning |
In addition, effective instructors acknowledge the differences among learners. For example, instructors have recognized that adults bring rich and divergent life experiences, are immersed in various life roles, have preferred learning styles, seek learning experiences that are relevant to their goals, and want practical solutions to problems and issues (Knowles, 1980; Caffarella, 2002). With the advent of "global classrooms" and the recognition that race, gender, class and culture do make a difference, responding to learner differences has become even more challenging.